Introduction

The twenty-first century has brought in massive changes in the labour processes, employment relations and erosion of labour standards in all sectors—manufacturing, agriculture and service—of the world economy. COVID19 pandemic has brought centre-stage the feminist discourse on paid and unpaid work, visible and invisiblised work, officially recognised and officially bypassed/ignored work as well as women's contribution of care economy for the survival of humankind. At this juncture, this edited volume acquires a great significance as it not only connects the missing dots in the gendered labour markets but also makes a convincing case for an urgent need for fiscal expansion to ensure food and health security, protection of livelihoods and investment in human development in this unequal world. The book is divided into three parts: (1) macroeconomy and women's work, (2) women in the urban economy and regional diversity and (3) women in agriculture and allied occupations. © 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

The impact of gender studies on law. Social reproduction, unpaid work and care under the lens of the Covid-19 pandemic

The outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020 uncovered a systemic deficit of care that renewed the feminist debate on social reproduction and unpaid gendered work. In contrast to other concepts developed by the feminist critique, the discussion on social reproduction has had a limited impact on law and legal studies. The article examines the reasons for this limited impact and shows how, inter alia, social reproduction processes complicate perspectives on women's unpaid work, externalization of care, informal labour and exploitation. A number of documents on the gendered impact of the pandemic issued by international institutions are used in the article as entry points for discussion and to map out a possible research agenda on social reproduction and law.

GENDER EQUALITY UNDER SIEGE: PERCEPTIONS AND SATISFACTION OF TELECOMMUTING WOMEN WORKERS WITH THE DISTRIBUTION OF UNPAID WORK DURING THE COVID-19 LOCKDOWN

This study analyses the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the division of domestic work as regards women in opposite-gender relationships, telecommuting and living as a couple, during the first lockdown in Portugal. Quantitative and qualitative data was collected (N = 171) to understand women's perceptions of time spent on unpaid work, satisfaction, and main difficulties in this period. Results revealed women's dissatisfaction, especially mothers of underage children, who perceived an increase in caregiving tasks. Women's satisfaction also impacted their perception of the causes for these gender asymmetries. The less satisfied women ascribe gender inequalities mainly to socio-normative factors and gender stereotypes, while the more satisfied women ascribe them to aspects of socialisation and upbringing, as well as innate dispositions that differ between men and women. The trend towards more equality found prior to Covid-19 was not found. © 2022 Associacao Portuguesa de Estudos sobre as Mulheres. All rights reserved.

Construct validity and internal consistency of the Home and Family Work Roles Questionnaires: a cross-sectional study with exploratory factor analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) measures the underlying relationships between questionnaire items and the factors ("constructs") measured by a questionnaire. The Home and Family Work Roles Questionnaire has not been assessed using EFA; therefore, our objective was to identify the factors measured by this questionnaire. METHODS: We recruited 314 persons to complete the questionnaire and to answer several demographic questions. We determined if the data was factorable by performing Bartlett's test of sphericity and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy. We used the Factor package in Jamovi statistical software to perform EFA. We employed an Oblimin rotation and a Principal Axis extraction method. We also calculated the internal consistency of the questionnaire as a whole as well as each individual question. RESULTS: Our sample consisted of 265 (85%) women, 45 (14%) men, and 3 (1%) non-binary or other genders. The mean age of our participants was 34.65 (SD = 11.57, range = 18-65) years. EFA suggested a three-factor model. Questions 11, 13, 14, 15, and 16 measured one factor (we interpreted this as "Caregiving Roles"), questions 1, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 18, and 19 measured a different factor ("Traditionally Feminine Roles"), and questions 2, 5, 6, and 12 measured the "Traditionally Masculine Roles". The questionnaire and each individual question demonstrated excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's α > 0.90). CONCLUSION: The Home and Family Work Roles Questionnaire may measure three distinct factors, which we have named Caregiving, Traditionally Feminine, and Traditionally Masculine Roles. This aligns with the theory used in developing the questionnaire. Separation of the Home and Family Work Roles Questionnaire into three sub-scales with distinct scores is recommended to measure each of the recommended constructs.

Household Financial Fragility During COVID-19: the Power of Financially Literate Women

This paper analyses household financial fragility during the COVID-19 pandemic. Considering the barging theory in households' decision-making, this paper proposes that women's financial literacy and their involvement in paid and unpaid work will influence family financial fragility in times of crisis. The results show that women's financial literacy, their participation in the labour market, and their financial independence have a significant and positive effect on the family's financial situation during the pandemic. Moreover, the level of women's unpaid work was identified as a significant element that jeopardizes family financial stability. The results further support the bargaining power theory regarding a better understanding of the complexity of decision-making within households. The results point to a new channel for preserving family financial stability, through the improvement of women's financial literacy and the development of institutional and social support for their participation in the labour market.

Impact of Universal Basic Income on Employment According to Russian Experts

The issue of universal basic income (UBI) has been gaining importance due to the growth of precarious employment, unemployment and inequality in the context of the development of digital technologies, especially considering the COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences. The article first presents the generalised and systemised reasoned opinions of Russian experts on UBI in order to examine its potential impact on employment. The initial research data resulted from a survey of different groups of Russian experts conducted by the authors. This information was supplemented by the results of various mass surveys. It was revealed that a significant part of Russian experts have concerns that UBI can negatively affect work incentives and labour supply. The systematisation of expert assessments allowed the research to create scenarios of the potential impact of UBI on population employment and work incentives, formal and informal employment, the ratio between paid and unpaid work, working and free time, the quality of leisure time. The study findings can be used as information and analytical support for the state policies aimed at improving the level and quality of life of the population, as well as making decisions on the appropriateness of UBI tools (including in Russia). Future research will examine in detail the impact of universal basic income on the labour market parameters, taking into account socio-demographic factors. © 2022 Institute of Economics, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Economic Crises and Women’s Experiences in the United States

In the intellectual tradition of Thorstein Veblen, the status of women (“woman’s place”) provides insight into the value systems dominant in society. This article asks what we learn about U.S. society when we examine economic crises through women’s experiences. This discussion focuses on the twenty-first century crises of the Great Recession and the COVID-19 recession, both of which were assigned gender pronouns—“Hecession” and “Shesession”—in popular discourse, reflecting in each case a particular pattern of gender differences (“gender gaps”) in unemployment rates. Taking a feminist institutional economics approach, this article briefly examines some key aspects of the experiences of women in these two crises, considering a broad range of demographic characteristics and indicators of well-being, over a timeframe that extends beyond the initial economic downturn. The article concludes with thoughts on what this means for our understanding of societal values and valuing. © 2022, Journal of Economic Issues / Association for Evolutionary Economics.

Gender Impacts of COVID-19 on the Labor Market and Household Wellbeing in Pakistan

This study examines the gender impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the labor market and household wellbeing, using an online survey of the users of Pakistan’s largest online job platform. The analysis shows that the pandemic led to an unprecedented level of economic insecurity for employees and employers alike, resulting in widespread job loss, business closures, a slowdown in business activity, and reduced working hours. The sectors where female workers are heavily concentrated, such as education, were more severely affected. The pandemic has also led to a disproportionate increase in women’s unpaid care work and increased their reported rates of stress and anxiety. These findings suggest that the pandemic had significant wellbeing impacts on women in Pakistan, including a decline in the female labor force participation rate, which is already among the world’s lowest. © 2022 Emcet O. Taş, Tanima Ahmed, Norihiko Matsuda, and Shinsaku Nomura.

Has the COVID-19 pandemic in Slovenia affected gender gap in paid and unpaid work?

Among other things, the COVID-19 pandemic has greatly affected the use of time of individuals. The burdens seem to have been unequally distributed between men and women. This paper analyses gender differences in Slovenia in time spent on paid and unpaid work before and during the lockdown. The design of our study enables us to examine the change in time spent on 14 different activities in an average workday before and during the pandemic. We find that during the pandemic, the gender gap in paid work widened, meaning that men spent even more time on paid work compared to women. Men also began to cook, devoted more time to cleaning and spent significantly more time caring for children. Therefore, the gender gap in childcare, which was marginally significant before the pandemic, became insignificant. During the pandemic, women spent relatively more time on home maintenance, which in turn led to a narrowing of the gender gap in this activity.

An Unequal Balance: Women's Jobs during covid-19: the Case of Panama.

This article attempts to answer the question of how women experienced the effects of the health measures including the gender-based lockdown and only being able to leave the house with an identity card adopted during covid-19 in Panama, especially as regards paid and unpaid work. The in-depth interview was used as a methodological tool, which was administered to key informants: leaders of women's, trade union and lgbti+ organizations, state officials and staff members of international organizations. Transcripts were analyzed on the basis of feminist academic bibliography together with the legislation, reports, and statistical data. It was thought that the government adopted measures that failed to consider gender inequality, which had effects on the lives of women, such as overburdening them and making work in the home and that of vulnerable women invisible. It also increased their paid workload, insecurity, and economic uncertainty. (English) [ FROM AUTHOR] Este artículo parte de la necesidad de responder a la pregunta de cómo vivieron las mujeres los efectos de las medidas sanitarias de confinamiento y de circulación por sexo y cédula, adoptadas en el marco de la covid-19 en la República de Panamá, sobre todo en materia de los trabajos remunerados y no remunerados. Se utilizó la entrevista a profundidad como herramienta metodológica, que fue aplicada a informantes clave: lideresas de organizaciones de mujeres, sindicales y lgbti+, funcionarias y funcionarios estatales y de organismos internacionales. Las transcripciones se analizaron con base en la bibliografía académico-feminista y, de manera complementaria, con legislación, informes y datos estadísticos. Fue generalizada la opinión de que el gobierno adoptó medidas que no consideraron la desigualdad de género, lo cual tuvo efectos en las vidas de las mujeres, tales como sobrecarga e invisibilización del trabajo en el hogar y de las mujeres vulnerables, aumento de su carga laboral remunerada, inseguridad e incertidumbre económica. (Spanish) [ FROM AUTHOR] Este artigo tenta responder à questão de como as mulheres vivenciaram os efeitos das medidas sanitárias de confinamento e circulação por sexo e carteira de identidade, adotadas no âmbito da covid-19 na República do Panamá --especialmente em matéria de pagamento e trabalho não remunerado. A ferramenta metodológica foi a entrevista em profundidade, aplicada a informantes-chave: líderes sindicais e de organizações de mulheres e lgbti+, funcionárias e funcionários do Estado e organizações internacionais. As transcrições foram analisadas atendendo à bibliografia acadêmico-feminista e, de forma complementar, à legislação, os relatórios e os dados estatísticos. A opinião generalizada foi que as medidas adotadas pelo governo foram indiferentes à desigualdade de gênero, o que repercutiu na vida das mulheres, como sobrecarregar e invisibilizar o trabalho em casa e às mulheres vulneráveis, aumentando sua renda de trabalho, insegurança e incerteza econômica. (Portuguese) [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of Debate Feminista is the property of Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

The gendered consequences of the COVID-19 lockdown on unpaid work in Swiss dual earner couples with children.

This article assesses the gendered impact of COVID-19 measures on changes in time that Swiss dual earner couples spent on unpaid work during the pandemic, focusing on families with children. Overcoming some of the methodological shortcomings of previous studies, high-quality representative panel data allow us to examine the change in time invested in housework and childcare before and during the pandemic, and test theoretical assumptions as to the mechanisms underlying the observed patterns. Gender inequalities are explained by the couple's work division prior to, and at the onset of, the pandemic and interpreted in the light of key theoretical approaches (economics of the family, bargaining and time availability, doing gender). Our results imply that in particular changes in the time availability of the partner are relevant for changes in time spent on housework, while in case of care work, the own time availability matters more. Moreover, we also found that the respondents' economic bargaining power within the couple matters both for housework and care work. Finally, the implemented COVID-19 measures neither led to an increase in patriarchal power structures nor did they foster an increase in equality for unpaid work among women and men. Instead, the results show that changes in time availability due to short-time, remote or overtime working schemes determined changes in time spent on unpaid care to a larger extent than gender alone.

Social utility against work: Lessons from unpaid work and its struggles

As underlined by the conflicts surrounding both volunteer and domestic unpaid work which took place during the COVID-19 lockdown period: by no means everything that contributes to society is defined as work, and not all contributors are equally seen as workers. By emphasizing the normative dimension of this notion of social utility and the social relations that structure it, we intend to highlight the ambivalent relationship that this criterion for the recognition of activities, but also of people, entertains with the notion of work. Social utility is not just one possible criterion among many for objectively assessing and prioritizing the value of occupations, and thus improving the recognition of work, through work. It is also an operator of the denial of work as work, through the institutionalization and development of gendered and racialized processes of assignment to unpaid work. The analysis of unpaid work and its struggles thus invites us to shift the question of the links between recognition of work and social utility from inside the sphere of work to its frontiers and to reopen our definition of work in order to develop a response.

Variety and change of patterns in the gender balance between unpaid care-work, paid work and free time across the world and over time: a measure of wellbeing?

Summary A measure of wellbeing cannot be reduced to the use that individuals make of their time, and some authors have warned that such an indicator is only of value in combination with a subjective measure of wellbeing. Drawing on data from some 200 time-use surveys collected in more than 80 countries over the last 5 decades, the paper aims to identify the permanencies and differences in the various time-use regimes across the regions of the world. The underlying objective is to show that these regimes provide the contextual background within which wellbeing can make sense. Time-use regimes are characterized by the average time spent in the major divisions/activities of the day, between necessary time, work time and free time. Work time is itself divided between contracted time (paid work and learning) and committed time (unpaid care work comprised of domestic chores, care of children and adults, and care work for other households or community). These divisions allow specifying the various work/life balances prevailing across the world, and especially the balance between paid and unpaid work, and its changes over time. In conclusion, the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on time-use regimes are questioned as to their lasting effects, their threat to prior gains on gender equality in paid and unpaid work, or at the opposite, the potential improvements they can generate in the sharing of responsibilities in unpaid care work within the household.

Merging the public and private spheres of women's work: Narratives from women street food vendors during Covid-19 crisis.

Feminist economists have long questioned the dichotomy between the "private" versus "public" spheres of women's work and have argued for a more nuanced understanding of the marketable paid work and the unpaid work of household caregiving. This paper focuses on women street food vendors' (SFVs) experiences before and during Covid-19 pandemic to understand how street food vending as a livelihood activity interacts with social dimensions like gender and division of labor. Through multiple in-depth interviews with 23 women street vendors in Bengaluru, India, before and during the pandemic, we show that there is a blurring of the dichotomy between the work done in the private and public spaces before the pandemic, which is disrupted by Covid-19 crisis. The first half of the paper explores the household labor dynamics in the context of paid and unpaid work of women and explains how the women SFVs, capitalizing on their existing skills of "cooking," were able to gain agency and recognition for themselves within the households. The second half of the paper focuses on the narratives of the same women SFVs during the first wave of the Covid pandemic and the subsequent lockdown. We find that the Covid crisis brought back the dichotomy between private and public spheres, making it more pronounced, with women losing their control over the public sphere and their work being restricted only to the private sphere.

The feminist political economy of Covid-19: Capitalism, women, and work.

Analysing the pandemic through a feminist political economy lens makes clear how gender, race, and class structures are crucial to the functioning of capitalism and to understanding the impacts of the pandemic. The way capital organises production and reproduction combines with structures of oppression, generating vulnerability among the racialised and gendered populations worst impacted by Covid-19. Using global data, this commentary shows that during the pandemic, women experienced relatively greater employment losses, were more likely to work in essential jobs, and experienced a greater reduction in income. Women were also doing more reproductive labour than men and were more likely to drop out of the labour force because of it. Analyses of capitalism in feminist political economy illustrate how capital accumulation depends on women's oppression in multiple, fundamental ways having to do with their paid and unpaid work. Women's work, and by extension their health, is the foundation upon which both production and social reproduction rely. Recognising the pandemic as endogenous to capitalism heightens the contradiction between a world shaped by the profit motive and the domestic and global requirements of public health.

COVID-19 disparities by gender and income: Evidence from the Philippines.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting containment policies have hit the Philippines harder than most developing countries. The government lockdown is among the strictest in the world, and blanket school closures are the lengthiest. This article uses a novel simulation model to estimate the gendered and regional impacts of these factors on labour, income and poverty, and a case study of school closures points to the losses in employment among private school teachers and in the income of parents with young children. The authors find that the pandemic has had unprecedented implications for economic activity and has disproportionately affected women.

Gender Gaps within Couples: Evidence of Time Re-allocations during COVID-19 in Argentina.

Based on a novel survey for Argentina, this paper provides evidence of the changes in time allocation within couples during the COVID-19 emergency. The survey was conducted online during the period of national lockdown in 2020 and collected information on hours allocated to paid work, housework, child care, educational childcare and leisure by both members of the couple before and during the lockdown, as well as socio-demographic characteristics. Our sample consists of 961 couples of which 785 have children. Our results indicate that during the lockdown, despite a reduction in time assigned to paid work and an increase in time spent in unpaid activities for both members of the couple, gender gaps regarding the latter increased. Specifically, while the load of men and women's work for pay became more equitable, women took up a larger proportion of the additional housework and childcare. We found that some factors mitigated (whether the man reduced his hours of work or whether both partners kept on doing so) while others potentiated (whether the woman reduced her hours of work, whether she continued working from home, or whether the couple outsourced housework before lockdown) the changes in the within-couple gender gaps in unpaid activities.

Labor market and unpaid works implications of COVID-19 for Bangladeshi women.

Crisis impacts are never gender-neutral, and COVID-19 is no exception. The pandemic has further exacerbated the gender and socioeconomic inequalities, therefore, crucial to undertake a gender impact analysis of COVID-19. This perspective paper highlights women's vulnerability in the labor market and focused on the increasing unpaid workloads in the response to the COVID-19 outbreak. Focusing on various surveys, feminized sectors such as agriculture, garments have been hardest hit by the pandemic. Female workers have been rapidly lost their means to earn income and confined to homes. Beyond lost jobs and reduced working hours, the pandemic has also increased the time poverty of women. While pre-pandemic unpaid work burdens are well established as strong, the study indicates that burdens are escalated after-pandemic. Women balanced intensified unpaid care and domestic works simultaneously or make a tradeoff, without or minimal help from men. Such results suggest a gender-inclusive policy to minimize the effects of the pandemic, placing women at the center of focus.

Gendering COVID-19: Impact of the Pandemic on Women's Burden of Unpaid Work in India.

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the already existing gender inequalities with substantial implications on women. With the closure of offices and educational institutions, and the emerging norm of work from home and online education, along with the lack of services of domestic worker, the need to perform unpaid chores in the household has increased. Simultaneously, the requirements of social distancing and sanitization have created new unpaid chores. Owing to the sexual division of labour, and gendered roles and social norms of performing domestic and care work, the burden of unpaid work falls disproportionately on women. In this context, the objective of the paper is to study the impact of COVID-19 on time spent on unpaid work and the underlying gender differences in the urban centres in India. Specifically, the paper will do a comparative analysis of the gender differences in time spent on unpaid work before and during the lockdown, and analyse the reasons for the same.